Euthanasia From An Islamic Perspective

Euthanasia From An Islamic Perspective In our position paper, EUTHANASIA from an Islamic perspective, we are very clear that Active Euthanasia (giving lethal injection to end life, as an example) is not just absolutely prohibited; rather it is condemned in Islam. However declining treatment is allowed in Islam. Withdrawal of treatment is considered as passive euthanasia by some Muslim scholars, no matter how futile the treatment. In order to understand this contemporary issue of Bioethics, we need to trace the entire problem, bringing to light various issues which have stirred the entire medical community, religious and moral institutions, to deliberate on this matter. Modern medicine has been enormously successful in saving and extending lives1. No one can disagree with it, but it has raised certain issues, namely, how to treat those who are alive, but not living lives they think worthwhile, and have no prospects for anything better. It has been argued that there is a strong prima facie case for allowing persons who are facing intractable pain or indignities in the final stages of their lives to determine for themselves when life is no longer worth living, and, where necessary, receive assistance in ending their lives. This prima facie case is constructed from the principles of liberty, autonomy and equality; from the value of preventing unnecessary suffering and preserving the dignity of the individual2. Active euthanasia is not legal. PAS is legal in the Netherlands, Belgium, and Switzerland. In the United States, Oregon legalized PAS in 1997, and the practice was legalized in Washington State in March of 2009. 3 The arguments against the ending of life include: the sanctity of life and the moral wrongness of killing; the possibility of an incorrect diagnosis or a miracle cure; the alleged inability to know that voluntary informed consent has been obtained; the slippery slope argument; and the ability of modern medicine to control pain. Etymology: Gk, eu, good; thanatos, death 1. The act or practice of ending the life of an individual suffering from a terminal illness or an incurable condition, as by lethal injection or the suspension of extraordinary medical treatment. 2. A quiet, painless death4. Euthanasia5: It refers to the practice of ending a life in a manner which relieves pain and suffering. It is a deliberate intervention undertaken with the express intention of ending a life, to relieve intractable suffering. It may be called intentional mercy killing. Voluntary Euthanasia: The physician intentionally ends the patients life at the patients request and with the patients full informed consent. Non-voluntary Euthanasia: Euthanasia conducted where the consent of the patient is unavailable Involuntary Euthanasia: Euthanasia conducted against the will of the patient. Passive euthanasia or Euthanasia by Omission: It entails intentionally causing death by not providing necessary usual and customary care by withholding supportive treatments, such as antibiotics, nutrition and respirators necessary for the continuance of life Active euthanasia or Euthanasia by Commission: The term euthanasia without a qualifying phrase means voluntary active euthanasia or intentionally causing a persons death by performing an action such as by giving a lethal injection. Physician Assisted Suicide (PAS) 6: The physician provides an individual with the information, prescription, guidance, and means to take his or her own life with the intention that they will be used for this purpose. Arguments for Euthanasia in cotemporary Bioethics7 Euthanasia and PAS may be considered no different from terminating life-sustaining treatments, which is recognized as ethically justified. In both cases, the patient consents to die, in both cases the physician intends to end the patients life and takes some action to cause this to happen; the final result is the patients death. If there is no difference in patient consent, physician intention, or the final result, there can be no difference in the ethical justification. To respect autonomy requires permitting individuals to decide when it is better to end their lives by euthanasia or PAS. Ending a painful life will actually relieve more suffering and thereby produce more good. Arguments against permitting euthanasia and/or PAS in cotemporary Bioethics 8 The exercise of autonomy cannot include the ending of ones life because that would mean ending the possibility of exercising autonomy. The principle of beneficence does not necessarily mean that euthanasia and/or PAS are acceptable as a means of improving well being. The quality care for the dying is not provided to many patients, leading to needless pain and suffering. There is a reasonable distinction between intentionally ending a life and terminating life-sustaining treatments. The actual acts are different injecting a life ending medication or providing a prescription for one is not the same as removing or refraining from introducing an invasive uncomfortable medical intervention. By terminating or withholding life-sustaining treatments, the physicians intention is not to expressly end the patients life but to remove or avoid invasive treatments that adversely impact quality of life and offer no meaningful chance of benefit. By allowing euthanasia we will open a door and euthan asia would not only be for people who are terminally ill. People who are very old and its difficult to look after them, invalid, disable children all will be given up for euthanasia which will cause moral injustice in the society at large. People to get property of an old or ill relative will subject them to euthanasia. Spouses to get rid of their ill partners and to avoid stress of looking after them will give them for euthanasia as a way out of their circumstances Islamic view against Euthanasia in the light of Shariah QURAN Life is an Amanah of God as in Quran it is said To Allah (Almighty God) we belong, and to Him is our return. (Quran 2:156).One thing that we must remember is that death is inevitable 9, and everything except the Almighty God of course, will perish. Signs of death can be seen all around us. At funerals we see people who were once walking among us being buried in their graves. In the fall we see the leaves turn from green to yellow and fall one at a time, and in the winter we see trees, lifeless. In this way, all things in this world will wither away and die. However, we as humans have no right to take another humans life as it is God who decides for the life and death; and a human being 10 is a very respectable creature of God. Allah (S.W.T.) says in Surat Al-Isra, (Verse 70), what can be translated as, We have honored the children of Adam and carried them on earth and in the sea and provided to them the good sustenance. And We made them better than many of what we created. Then Allah (S.W.T) clarified that He (S.W.T.) made the whole universe in the service of man. He says in Surat Lu-Qman, (Verse 20), what can be translated as, Do you not see that Allah made available for you what is in the skies and on earth and flooded you with many blessings known and unknown. So it is evident that Human being is the best creature of God so how come one take his/ her life as in Quran it is said and (Allah) is the one who gave you life, then shall He ordain you to die, then shall He give you your life again, truly mankind is ungrateful (Chapter 22, verse 66) .The sanctity of human life is a basic concept in Islam] moreover , it is said .take not life which Allah has made sacred (Chapter 6, verse 151) furthermore , it is also mentioned Do not kill yourselves, for verily Allah has been to you most merciful (Chapter 4, verse 29) . Now the point comes, if God has made the life of Human, sacred how Islam can permit mercy killing 11. In addition to that Islam has always emphasized on natural death (according to Gods plan and not according to a doctors, judges or the familys plan or decision) in the patients best interests and is the most dignified death for a Muslim believer. Now if we look into the issue of mercy killing in Islamic perspective, it is quite evident that God has not permitted us to take any bodys life. In fact Allah has guided us on treatment. Illnesses and infirmities in life are facts of life that must be met with patience. Such adversities ought to be regarded as challenges to be faced with fortitude 12. And afflicted person should regard his suffering as a test from Allah and should exercise patience (Al Saber) Allah states He test the believers with calamities Al-Quran 2.153. Sunnah Prophet Mohammad (PBUH) said: Whoever kills himself with an iron instrument will be carrying it forever in hell. Whoever takes poison and kills himself will forever keep sipping that poison in hell. Whoever jumps off a mountain and kills himself will forever keep falling down in the depths of hell. (Sahih Bukhari) The Prophet (PBUH) said:I find it strange on the part of a man of faith that he should grieve at his ailment; if he knew what goodness is in his illness, he would love to be ill until he meets his Lord. (Sahih Bukhari) The Prophet (PBUH) said: Amongst the nations before you there was a man who got a wound and growing impatient (with its pain), he took a knife and cut his hand with it and the blood did not stop till he died. Allah said, My Slave hurried to bring death upon himself so I have forbidden him (to enter) Paradise. Sahih Bukhari 4.56.669 The Prophet (PBUH) is reported to have said: Allah (S.W.T) descends diseases and for each ailment He facilitates cures, therefore you should seek treatment 13, but never seek cure from a malignant and harmful substance like poison. 14 Qiyas 15 The extension of Hukm or legal ruling of an established case to a new case by analogy, when the effective cause is the same in both is Qiyas. We opt for it in biomedical issues. In case of unintentional killing, the relatives of deceased can opt for Qisas, diyah or can forego their right. The consent given by relatives to stop a drug or life support in case of brain dead person. Qiyas is invalid, since the right to pardon presupposes the death of the deceased. Juristic preference Istihsan, according to Hanafi School. Such consent is valid because the effective cause of death was present at that time. There is rejection of this view by Hanbalis and Shafie. Islamic Code of Medical Ethics Issued by the first international conference on Islamic Medicineà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦it states, A doctor is well advised to realize his limit and not transgress it. If it is scientifically certain that life cannot be restored, then it is futile to keep a patient in a vegetative state by heroic means or on artificial methods. It is the process of life that the doctor aims to maintain and not the process of dying. In any case, he should not take a positive measure to take a patients life. Handling Requests for Euthanasia Doctors must listen to the persons request and affirm that they understand that a great deal of suffering underlies the request. Being heard and affirmed can remedy some of the major sources of psychosocial suffering that tend to accompany such requests. In addition doctors need to conduct a comprehensive assessment to understand the nature and sources of the entire patients physical, psychological, spiritual and social suffering. Physicians should determine what social relationships and supports the patient has, and encourage interactions with family and others. Most pain and other physical causes of suffering can be reduced to acceptable levels. Much of the depression, anxiety and other psychological suffering can be minimized. Spiritual suffering can be addressed, as can social issues. With skilled use of palliative care, most experts find that a great majority of cases are resolved and the request goes away. Decisions about life and death matters should never be made in isolation . Determining death Given the need to recite a confession before death, Islam stresses the importance of retaining consciousness until this has been accomplished. The Quran is unclear about whether the body dies when the soul is removed by the Angel of Death, since it does not favor the Greek-inspired mind-body dualism of the persons makeup. Rather, death is most analogous to sleep; indeed, Rahman contends that sleep is a sort of lesser death. The Muslim view is, that the life principle resides in Gods hands and the absence of it cannot be established just through a lack of brain-wave activity. From a religious point of view, mechanical intervention at the time of death is of limited value, since death is considered a moment of destiny involving supernatural forces. However, in 1986, the International Collective of Islamic Jurists of the Organization of Islamic Conference rendered an opinion in Amman, Jordan, saying that an individual would be considered dead in either of the following situations: 1. If the heart and breath stop completely, and the physicians are convinced that this condition is irreversible: 2. If all the mental functions of the mind have ceased, and the physicians decide such a condition is irreversible. In either of these scenarios, it is legitimate to disengage all machines, even if some parts of the body are still functioning with their assistance. It is also legitimate to stop all medical intervention. While these guidelines carefully define death, they have also validated decisions to maintain people who are brain dead on life support systems, since such sustenance allows the physician to keep the person alive until body parts can be harvested. The justification for this modification of the bodys integrity is the greater good of the community. Saudi Arabia has become a leader in this field in the Muslim world. The general thrust of Muslim belief is that the community must sustain an individual until it is obvious that the believer must face God. Prolonging that moment will serve no religious purpose. Intravenous feeding for the sole purpose of sustaining the mechanical functions of the body runs counter to Islamic notions of death. Ultimately Muslims believe medicine cannot change the destiny of the human, and attempts to bypass the inevitable may be interpreted as an obvious lack of trust in God. Killing and its Liability: In Quran its been said: On that account We ordained for the children of Israel that if anyone slay a person -unless it be for murder or spreading mischief in the land- it would be as if he slew the whole people. And if anyone saved a life, it would be as if he saved the life of the whole people (Quran 5:32). Saving of one person life is next to saving a whole human race in terms of greatness of its reward. (Al Quran) To violate it is a serious crime therefore, to kill someone deliberately because he is suffering from an unbearable painful illness or injury or because he is too old and has lost all usefulness and praise for living or his illness is incurable comes under culpable homicide and punishable by Qisas (Quran Ayah 2.178)[15] Intentional Killing of someone with incurable disease unbearable pain: Not Allowed in Islam. Un-intentional Killing: In case of a Murdered victim: Heirs of a murdered victim can forgive a victim after the victim has died. Heirs cannot allow killing or remove life saving support before victims death. In Islam anything done by doctor to cause heart, lung or brain death is considered to be Euthanasia which is not permissible in Islam. If a doctor or a surrogate decision maker does euthanasia then he has to pay compensation (Al-DIYAH) to the relatives. He would be deprived of any benefit from inheritance or any reward from the victim in his favor He has to pay AL-Kaffarah as well. This depends on type of euthanasia and intention behind it. Conclusion: The Quran is forthright about death as a major passage to another life. In Islam, it is not quite true to say that death is the cessation of life, but rather, that the life one receives at birth is preparatory for the life after death. Islam is against euthanasia. Human life is sacred because it is given by Allah, and that Allah chooses how long each person will live. Human beings should not interfere in this. Euthanasia and suicide are not included among the reasons allowed for killing in Islam.16 Islam strongly condemns ending of human life on grounds of mercy and human sympathy. Life is a great gift from Allah and is to be cherished and protected at all times. Muslim doctors, nurses and patients should have this basic positive attitude towards human life. They are considered to be life savers and not killers. Islam strongly urges the afflicted person to exercise patience, and strongly exhorts his relatives and community to help relieve his sufferings. Active euthanasia is islamically forbidden for it encompasses a positive role on the part of the physician to end the life of the patient and hasten his death. This is an act of killing, and, killing is a major sin and thus forbidden in Islam, the religion of pure mercy. As for the declining of medical treatment which is, from a medical perspective, thought to be useless, this is permissible and sometimes it is even recommended. Passive euthanasia, which is withdrawal of treatment, remains controversial, requires expiation, even though pardoned by the relatives.12 Only ALLAH has the attributes of AR-REHMAN and AR RAHIM. He is the most Gracious and the most Merciful more than any human being can ever be so we all should pray to ALLAH in difficult situations instead of thinking ourselves to be more merciful by allowing euthanasia for ourselves or for others.

Leigh Anne Tuohy from “The Blind Side” Essay

Leigh Anne Tuohy from the movie â€Å"The Blind Side† embodies what it means to be a passionate, strong, and loving mother. She’s no bullshit, and it’s obvious on screen. When she speaks, she means it. She doesn’t want to raise spoiled, bratty kids; she knows better than that. When she gets tough, it’s not out of anger or hate. It’s coming from a deep place of love. She not only demonstrates her passionate-about-life demeanor to her children, but to everyone she comes across. She is never rude, bitchy, hateful, or disrespectful. But somehow she manages to remain a leader among everyone she meets. In the recent years, there have been some new philosophies on parenting that try to brainwash the minds of parents in need of guidance. These parents don’t want to be mean or neglect their children. They see other parents spanking and yelling with anger, and they know that’s not the right way to go. The new philosophies confirm this, but take a radical stance on an alternative: No leadership whatsoever. This sounds like something so wild and outlandish that it may actually work! Bend to the child’s every demand, and reward misbehavior. Disillusioned parents will try to look past the fact that their kids are not learning any responsibilities, demanding them around like servants, and progressing slower with behavior issues than other children their age. The scary part about it is nobody has yet seen the long-term affects of this â€Å"no discipline† parenting. Kids without strong leaders as parents are used to getting everything they need emotionally and materialistically from somebody else, and when they’re on their own, there is no emotional parental crutch to hold their hand through mature situations. Their realities go haywire, growing into selfish adults incapable of thinking about others. They’ve been raised to be the constant center of attention at all times, so considering another person’s well-being would be silly. Either that, or the child grows to be depressed about life, finding out it doesn’t work the way their parents had originally presented it to them. I could go on explaining all the reasons why that type of parenting doesn’t work, but we’re over  that. You’re smart enough to not go down that road with your kids, so now I want to guide you in the right direction. And Leigh Anne is going to help me. She is the perfect model for how CharismaticKid teaches leadership to parents, and she can be our company mascot if she wants to. (Leigh Anne, if you’re reading this†¦ call me. We’ll do lunch.) It’s in her vibe, in her tone, and in her words. And she knows words play the smallest role when it comes to teaching leadership and discipline. Remember, children’s first teacher was body language, the next was verbal communication. Charismatic parents say more with one or two words than most parents can say with a whole bucket load. 1. Respect When her charismatic kid, SJ, puts his feet up on the dashboard of her BMW, she turns from normal to â€Å"don’t even think about it† tone. â€Å"Gitchyer’ feet off my dash.† She said it calmly, as if she already knew he would comply. And he doesn’t have a second thought about it. He takes them off as if he knew he wasn’t supposed to, but forgot. â€Å"Thank you. Put on your seatbelt.† 2. Independence When her daughter, Collins, smacked the floor after trying to save the ball from hitting the ground at her high school volleyball game, she gave her mother a look of â€Å"I can’t deal with this anymore.† Leigh Anne knows that confident kids don’t come running to their parents when they encounter speed bumps. So instead of getting upset and feeling bad for her daughter, she gestures for her to get up, stop being a baby, and keep playing. â€Å"Go.† One word. Does this mean that Leigh Anne doesn’t love Collins? Does this mean she is trying to lower her confidence? Just the opposite. She is raising an independent woman, who will know how to deal with issues by herself. Strong  women breed strong women. She loves her daughter so much that she won’t stand to let her become dependent on another person. Do you think Collins will end up being a needy, desperate woman in ten years? Don’t count on it. This face is saying, â€Å"And I mean it, mister! Don’t you act like a sissy when it is your job to lead. Now LEAD!† 3. Maturity It’s obvious Leigh Anne doesn’t sugar coat life for her kids. She knows that when they grow up, nobody is going to sugar coat things for them then, so why do it now? If they grew up having a skewed view on who they are in life, reality will hit hard when they learn the truth. Leigh Anne knows this, and â€Å"keeps it real† with SJ after his performance as an American Indian in his school play. â€Å"SJ, don’t let this go to your head, but I thought you were very convincing in the role of†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"Indian number three?† â€Å"Yes.† It was a real compliment, and that is light years more meaningful than blowing smoke up someone’s butt. SJ will grow up to know how to react to real criticism in a confident and mature manner. He will learn to accept when he isn’t perfect, and this builds character. Someone comfortable with their vulnerabilities is the most confident person you can meet. She treats him as he wants to be treated, with sincerity. From watching the movie, it’s obvious SJ is mature for his age. Why do you think this is? Another example of teaching maturity to your children is to give them adult decisions to make that can affect the entire family. When you do this, you not only give them a sense of worth for themselves, but you are also preparing them to make important decisions as they become adults. Leigh Anne demonstrated a good example of this when she gave Collins the decision to whether the family should keep Big Mike in their home, or to let him go. Giving your child important choices to make on their own allows her to prove the maturity she wishes to show to the rest of her family. It’s funny how when you give your child a responsibility, if you expect her to follow  through, most of the time she will. 4. Compassion and Responsibility On their way home from the play, the Tuohy family saw Big Mike walking in the rain to the gym to get some warmth. He’s now homeless and has nowhere to stay. What would you do in this situation? Leigh Anne was teaching SJ a lesson in compassion when she made no argument to bring Big Mike home with them for the night. Compassion is an emotion, and the definition of an emotion is a thought that inspires action. Taking him home was the action, and to pass-up on that would be ignoring her responsibility. It is any healthy person’s responsibility to take care of others as a way of being grateful for life. It’s nice to think that we would do something like this, but would we really? That small difference is what will make your child a â€Å"giver† or a â€Å"taker† as they grow up. Notice Leigh Anne’s sternness with Mike as he is acting standoffish towards her. Notice the raised eyebrows, this is simple body language denoting â€Å"expectant of an answer†. She uses strong facial expressions, body language, and eye contact with him to let him know she is not playing games. She didn’t talk to him from the car window, but instead walked straight up to him with little introduction. She was cutting to the point. Here’s the shot of compassion. Here is her glare of responsibility. SJ sees all of this. She is saying with her face, â€Å"Don’t you dare deny that this is our responsibility.† She doesn’t ask, â€Å"Would you like to stay at our house tonight?† She knows he’d say no. That’d be a cop out for her. She can get back in the car and tell her family, â€Å"Well, I tried.† No, she knows that in order to be happy and to do the same for others, she has to take matters into her own hands. She TELLS him to come home with them. She knows it’s the right thing to do, and she knows Big Mike wants to, but is too shy. This is where her leadership skills come in as well. Most people are too scared to say how they feel. There always must be a leader in the group that calls the shots.  Leigh Anne Tuohy takes that role seriously. Watch above how she doesn’t plead with him, she just turns around KNOWING that he will follow. 4. Body Language SJ is at the age where he is getting most of the lessons, and a kid would be fed up with his mother’s discipline by now. But not SJ. Why is that? When Leigh Anne lays down the law, she doesn’t do it with anger or emotion. It is straight up unemotional discipline. She also makes sure everyone KNOWS she is in charge, so no one argues with her. SJ looks up to his mother because she is such a strong leader. Watch this clip below, and notice how her correction is quick, unemotional, and sure. SJ reacts like lightning, because Leigh Anne demands good behavior from her children, not just asks for it. Notice how the correction of SJ’s behavior did not make the relationship between him and his mother sour? Even immediately afterwards, he was cracking up at his mother’s assertive attitude towards taking Big Mike shopping. He loves her! There were no hard feelings because Leigh Anne doesn’t mix feelings with discipline. Also take note of how quickly Leigh Anne changes her demeanor from â€Å"tough-love Leigh Anne† to â€Å"cheerful perky mama† after the correction has been given. Let’s talk about the subtle body language correction itself. SJ wasn’t rebelling by putting his elbows on the table, nor did he MEAN to be disrespectful. He was simply being lazy and forgetful. Leigh Anne was acting as his temporary conscious brain reminding him of something he should already have known to do. When SJ gets older, he’ll be able to remind himself about bad body language, because he’s been given cues as a child for when to correct himself. Why correct bad body language in the first place? Because if ignored, it can turn your mood into the way it looks. Elbows on the table blocks off others from talking to you. SJ wasn’t trying to do that, but the repeated habit of it can eventually make him feel more comfortable eating without anyone bothering him. Leigh Anne is there to nip that in the bud. 5. Self-sacrificing Did I mention that charisma is about exposing your vulnerabilities? People are so caught up with the thought that confidence has something to do with  only showing your strengths, but that’s just half the equation. When you can show your weakness to others, and take it even a step further and sacrifice yourself for their benefit, you are on your way to confidence mastery. When Leigh Anne gives the famous speech to Mike on the field about protecting his family, she is putting him in a leadership role among the teammates. A leader’s job is not only to lead, but to ensure the well-being of the rest of the group. When you make the choice to protect your friends, family, or teammates, you are sacrificing the chance of your own well-being for others. This is what makes a loved leader. Notice how Leigh Anne’s expression up above is saying, â€Å"I know you have the guts to take charge of your team, Michael. So do it.† She’s not yelling at him, she is disciplining him†¦ †¦ And it’s obvious that he enjoys and respects her stern demeanor. Leigh Anne doesn’t beat around the bush, and people not only respect but enjoy such direct interaction. (Don’t confuse this with bitchiness. Some people like to be blunt in a rude and demoralizing way to others, claiming they are â€Å"just being honest.† No, they’re not being honest, just negative. This isn’t a confident trait, it’s insecurity manifested into fake confidence. Be sure not to mistake your â€Å"confidence† for anger, jealousy, or insecurity. A confident person is self-LESS, an insecure person is self-ISH.) 6. Emotionally Stable Most people in this world possess emotional instability. They get upset over things, whether big or small, and show anger towards others because of it. A confident person is always emotionally stable. There is never a time where getting upset is necessary or beneficial to a situation. It is always a deterrent to your well-being, as well as to the rest of the people in your family. When Michael had gotten into a car accident with SJ sitting in the front seat of the pickup truck that the Tuohy’s had bought for him, he knew he screwed up bad. But aside from minor cuts and bruises, SJ was fine. Leigh Anne had a choice: to use anger as a way to teach Mike a lesson, or to calmly address the situation with a peaceful mind. The problem with using anger as a method  for discipline is that it breaks the trust between you and your child. They’ll begin hiding things from you, lying to you about the party they went to last weekend, and eventually your kids will be living a secret life keeping you out of the loop when it comes to their real lives. But aside from the trust factor, choosing to live an emotionally stable life lowers your stress level to zero, and teaches your children to do the same. When you can approach each and every situation from a place of calmness, you automatically set yourself up for a confident disposition. Your family members feel more confident in following you, because your choices do not come from a place of negative emotion, but rather positivity and love.

The US National Debt

â€Å"Spending financed not by current tax receipts, but by borrowing or drawing upon past tax reserves. † Is it a good idea? Why does the U. S. run a deficit? Since 1980 the deficit has grown enormously. Some say it is a bad thing, and predict impending doom, others say it is a safe and stable necessity to maintain a healthy economy. For nearly 150 years the U. S. government managed to keep a balanced budget. The only time a budget deficit existed during these years was in times of war or other catastrophic events. For instance, the government created deficits during the War of 1812, the recession of 1837, the Civil War, the depression of the 1890s, and World War I. However, once each incident ended the deficit would be eliminated. The economy was much stronger than the accumulated debt and would therefore quickly absorb it. The last time the budget ran a surplus was in 1969 during Nixon’s presidency. Budget deficits have grown larger and more frequent in the last half-century. In the 1980s they soared to record levels. The government cut income tax rates, greatly increased defense spending, and didn’t cut domestic spending enough to make up the difference. The deep recession of the early 1980s reduced revenues, raising the deficit and forcing the Government to spend much more on paying interest for the national debt at a time when interest rates were high. As a result, the national debt grew exponentially in size after 1980. It grew from $709 billion to $3. 3 trillion in 1990, only one decade later. (See Table 1) Federal spending has grown over the years. If you compare actual dollars and their proportion to the economy (Gross Domestic Product, or GDP), much of it began in the 1930s. Beginning with the â€Å"New Deal†, the Federal Government came to play a much larger role in American life. President Franklin D. Roosevelt sought to use the full powers of his office to end the Great Depression. He and Congress greatly expanded Federal programs. Federal spending, which totaled less than $4 billion in 1931, went up to nearly $7 billion in 1934 and then over $8 billion in 1936. U. S. entry into World War II sent annual Federal spending soaring to over $91 billion by 1944. Thus began the ever-increasing debt of the United States. Is our debt increasing as fast as we think it is? The dollar amount of the debt may increase but often times so does the amount of money or GDP to pay for the debt. Some believe a deficit allows more people to work, increasing productivity. A deficit does this because it is invested into the economy by government. For example, if the government spends deficit money on new highways, trucking will benefit and more jobs will be produced. When an economic system is in recession all of its resources are not being used. For instance, if the government did not build highways we could not ship goods and thereby decrease demand for them. Because we cannot ship the items, the supply remains low even though we have the ability to produce more. This non-productivity comes at a cost to the whole economic system. If deficit spending eliminates non-productivity then its direct monetary cost will be offset, if not surpassed, by increased productivity. In the 1980’s when the huge deficits were adding up, the actual additions to the public capital or increased productivity were often as big or bigger than the deficit. This means that as long as the government spends the money it gains from a deficit on assets that increase its wealth and productivity, the debt actually benefits the economy. But what if the government spends money on programs that do not increase its assets or productivity? Consider small businesses for instance. A company invests money to hire a new salesman. He will probably increase sales and the company will regain what it spent hiring him. If the company spends money on paper clips when they already have staplers they will just lose money. This frivolous spending is what makes a deficit dangerous. The government’s net worth decreases which risks putting it into serious debt. Debt should not be a problem because we can just borrow more, right? This statement would be correct if our ability to borrow was unlimited, but it is not. At first the government borrowed internally from private sectors. The government did this by selling bonds to the private sectors, essentially reallocating its own countries funds to spend on its country. This works fine in a recession, but when the country is at or near its full capability for production it cannot increase supply through investment of deficit dollars. Deficit dollars then translate into demand for goods that aren’t being produced. Referring back to the small business example, if a company is selling all the products it can produce they can still hire another salesman. However, since there are no more goods to be sold, the salesman only increases the number of consumers demanding the product. The problems of deficit spending out of a recession even out through two negative possibilities, inflation and crowding out. Inflation means there is more demand or money than there are goods this causes an increase in prices and drives down the worth of the dollar. This depreciation of the dollar counters the cost of the deficit but destroys the purchasing power of the dollar. A five-dollar debt is still a five-dollar debt even if the five dollars are only worth what used to be a five-cent piece of bubble gum. Despite its danger, inflation is used to some extent to curb the debt. Crowding out is when the government is looking for the same capital that the business sector wants to invest. This causes fierce competition for funds to invest. The fierce competition causes an increase in interest rates and often business will decide against further investment and growth. The government may have the money to build new highways but the truckers cannot afford trucks to use on them. The governments needs will â€Å"crowd out† business needs. This turns potential assets into waste. However, there is a third option that would allow the government to run a deficit and avoid the negative aspects of inflation and crowding out. Borrowing from foreign sources is a tangible and recently very common practice. Attracted by high interest rates and stability, foreigners now buy huge amounts of U. S. national debt. Of course this cannot be the perfect solution otherwise no one would be concerned about the debt. The problem with borrowing from external sources is the lack of control the government has over foreign currency and debts. Internal debts can be paid with increased taxes, inflation, and other monetary controls the government has. External debts can extremely damaging to a country if it cannot buy enough of the foreign currency to pay the interest. Running a deficit is apparently good for an economy that is operating inside its production possibilities curve but it can be damaging to an economy otherwise. A deficit managed properly has the effect of increasing demands. An economy inside its curve can increase supplies in reaction. An economy on the curve can increase demand but its supplies cannot increase causing prices to rise, or inflation. If there is no deficit and the curve shifts to the right then supplies will not increase and the country will no longer be operating on the curve. A deficit must be maintained to insure that the economy grows with its resources. Is the US’s current debt bad or good? The trick is finding out how large the deficit should be in order to allow for growth without waste. The US’s deficit is bad at this point because the U. S. is close to its maximum production capabilities, and deficit money is being wasted. For example two of the largest portions of the budget: defense and social security. Defense spending produces little or nothing except in times of war. The way social security is managed creates a huge waste. As managed, social security is money spent to immobilize a large and fairly capable part of the work force. It encourages elderly people not to work by spending deficit money on them. Reducing productivity and increasing the debt at the same time. In its current state, the U. S. should attempt to reduce its deficit. However, eliminating it is not necessary and could do more damage than good.

The Genome Project Of Any Species - 901 Words

The genome sequencing project of any species would not be possible without modern sequencing technologies and the methods described in this thesis, transcriptome and genome resources for whitefly can be rapidly developed which enable exciting research. Methods and results described in this thesis are just examples for any genome project, and would suit best to any arthropod that contain bacterial endosymbiont. This concluding chapter summarizes the previous chapters and also outlines the possible future directions for improvements and describes the exciting research studies possible. 8.0.1 What can we do with the transcriptome Chapter 1 began by addressing the research problem and describing the whiteflies that have been studied so far and why the genome of this species is needed. Although, four transcriptomes of different whitefly species have already been published and the data are available to public. These four transcriptomes were compared in Chapter 2 to identify sequence and functional differences across them. The main aim of the Chapter 2 was to obtain a comprehensive transcriptome data set for Asia I species which could effectively used for further analysis in this thesis. In order to capture the complete transcriptome of Asia I species, two different libraries (Normalized and Unnormalized) were generated and sequenced. These combined data sets from two libraries not only led to complete transcriptome resource but also to identifying the abundance and leastShow MoreRelatedThe Controversy Of Eugenics And Genetic Engineering1632 Words   |  7 Pagesmankind has sought to understand itself. We question why we exist and what our role in the universe is, even though we may never receive an answer. One of these problems that humanity has yet to fully understand is evolution, which is the process of a species undergoing changes that suit their environment through multiple generations. 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